Examining the effects of changing physiological and psychological conditions and Schumann frequency on time perception and anticipation timing in male referees with EEG

Background: Physical exertion and external stimuli can impact cognitive performance. This study explored how match-like environments and Schumann’s binaural beat stimulation affect time perception and anticipation timing, critical for football referees’ decision-making. Methods: Using a quasi-experimental time series design, 24 active male referees participated voluntarily. Time perception and anticipation timing were assessed under four conditions: baseline (B), aerobic exercise (E), aerobic exercise with 85 dB crowd noise (ECN) and 7.83 Hz Schumann binaural beat stimulation (SBS). Heart rate and electroencephalogram (EEG) data were continuously monitored. Data on time perception (ms), anticipation timing (ms), heart rate (bpm), and EEG (microvolts) were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS 26.0. Results: The results showed significant differences in time perception between E, SBS, ECN and SBS conditions (p < 0.05), but no significant differences in anticipation timing across conditions. EEG data revealed increased alpha and theta band power during the SBS condition compared to others (p < 0.05). Additionally, theta band power was significantly higher in the ECN condition than in the B condition (p < 0.05). The findings highlighted improved time perception under the ECN condition, with a positive correlation between elevated theta band power and enhanced time perception. However, despite a similar increase in theta power during the SBS condition, referees did not show significant improvements in time perception. Conclusions: These results suggest that theta oscillations may play a role in time perception, but other neurophysiological and environmental factors likely influence this relationship. Further research is needed to understand the complex interplay between these variables and their impact on cognitive performance in referees.

Time perception; Anticipation timing; EEG; Referees; Schumann frequency; Binaural stimulation

[1] Vater C, Schnyder U, Müller D. That was a foul! How viewing angles, viewing distances, and visualization methods influence football referees’ decision-making. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research. 2024; 54: 476–485.

[2] Put K, Wagemans J, Spitz J, Williams AM, Helsen WF. Using web-based training to enhance perceptual-cognitive skills in complex dynamic offside events. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2016; 34: 181–189.

[3] Burge T. Perception: first form of mind. 1st edn. Oxford University Press: Oxford. 2022.

[4] Wearden J. The psychology of time perception. 1st edn. Palgrave Macmillan: London. 2016.

[5] Kondo HM, Gheorghiu E, Pinheiro AP. Malleability and fluidity of time perception. Scientific Reports. 2024; 14: 12244.

[6] Gardner HR, Konrad A, Alizadeh S, Graham A, Behm DG. Temporal perception is distorted by submaximal and maximal isometric contractions of the knee extensors in young healthy males and females. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2023; 5: 1185480.

[7] Pizzera A, Laborde S, Lahey J, Wahl P. Influence of physical and psychological stress on decision-making performance of soccer referees. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2022; 40: 2037–2046.

[8] Piras A, Lobietti R, Squatrito S. Response time, visual search strategy, and anticipatory skills in volleyball players. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2014; 2014: 189268.

[9] Williams AM, Jackson RC. Anticipation in sport: fifty years on, what have we learned and what research still needs to be undertaken? Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2019; 42: 16–24.

[10] Wittmann M. The inner sense of time: how the brain creates a representation of duration. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2013; 14: 217–223.

[11] Sudo M, Costello JT, McMorris T, Ando S. The effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance: a structured narrative review. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 2022; 16: 957677.

[12] Schneeberger M, Pszeida M, Lenger M, Heiler L, Simi H, Wallner D, et al. Impact of acute physical exercise on cognitive performance. Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things. 2023; 73: 93–103.

[13] Ovchinnikova NA, Medvedeva EV, Yezhova GS, Krivoshchekov SG, Kapilevich LV. Influence of physical loads on cognitive functions and bioelectric activity of the brain in athletes of various specializations. Human Physiology. 2023; 49: 502–512.

[14] Dufner TJ, Moon JM, Wells AJ. Cycle-based high-intensity sprint exercise elicits acute cognitive dysfunction in psychomotor and memory task performance. Frontiers in Cognition. 2024; 3: 1419734.

[15] Molinaro L, Taborri J, Pauletto D, Guerra V, Molinaro D, Sicari G, et al. Measuring the immediate effects of high-intensity functional training on motor, cognitive and physiological parameters in well-trained adults. Sensors. 2023; 23: 3937.

[16] Festa F, Medori S, Macrì M. Move your body, boost your brain: the positive impact of physical activity on cognition across all age groups. Biomedicines. 2023; 11: 1765.

[17] Ceylan HI, Saygin O. Acute effect of various exercise ıntensities on cognitive performance. European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science. 2018; 4: 157–172.

[18] Katahira K, Yamazaki Y, Yamaoka C, Ozaki H, Nakagawa S, Nagata N. EEG correlates of the flow state: a combination of increased frontal theta and moderate frontocentral alpha rhythm in the mental arithmetic task. Frontiers in Psychology. 2018; 9: 300.

[19] Ettefagh A, Ghassemi F, Tabanfar Z. Time-frequency analysis of electroencephalogram signals in a perceptual decision-making task of random dot kinematograms. Frontiers in Biomedical Technologies. 2022; 9: 170–175.

[20] Pathak D, Kashyap R, Rahamatkar S. A study of deep learning approach for the classification of electroencephalogram (EEG) brain signals. In Pandey R, Khatri SK, Singh NK, Verma P (eds.) Artificial intelligence and machine learning for EDGE computing (pp. 133–144). 1st edn. Academic Press: Cambridge. 2022.

[21] Clements GM, Bowie DC, Gyurkovics M, Low KA, Fabiani M, Gratton G. Spontaneous alpha and theta oscillations are related to complementary aspects of cognitive control in younger and older adults. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2021; 15: 621620.

[22] Amil AF, Albesa-González A, Verschure PFMJ. Theta oscillations optimize information rate in the hippocampus. PLOS Computational Biology. 2024; 20: e1012628.

[23] Dos Anjos T, Di Rienzo F, Benoit CE, Daligault S, Guillot A. Brain wave modulation and EEG power changes during auditory beats stimulation. Neuroscience. 2024; 554: 156–166.

[24] Kerna NA, Chawla S, Carsrud NDV, Pruitt KD, Nwokorie U, Flores JV, et al. Binaural beats: novel approach to managing certain physiological and psychological conditions. EC Psychology and Psychiatry. 2022; 11: 58–69.

[25] Nalluri VRS, Sonti VK, Sundari G. Analysis of frequency dependent Vedic chanting and its influence on neural activity of humans. International Journal of Reconfigurable and Embedded Systems. 2023; 12: 230–239.

[26] Piffaretti M, Carr B. “We react less. We react differently. We react better”: a case study of a mindfulness-based intervention for Olympic referee performance. Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 6: 78–93.

[27] Ingendoh RM, Posny ES, Heine A. Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention. PLOS ONE. 2023; 18: e0286023.

[28] Ke J, Du J, Luo X. The effect of noise content and level on cognitive performance measured by electroencephalography (EEG). Automation in Construction. 2021; 130: 103836.

[29] Goudini R, Zahiri A, Alizadeh S, Drury B, Anvar SH, Daneshjoo A, et al. The effects of physical and mental fatigue on time perception. Sports. 2024; 12: 59.

[30] MacKenzie CA, Christensen J, Turner S. Advocating beyond the academy: dilemmas of communicating relevant research results. Qualitative Research. 2013; 15: 105–121.

[31] Yeaton WH. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs–verities and balderdash 1: designating designs to discern the difference. 2nd edn. Routledge: London, England. 2024.

[32] Macorig G, Crespel A, Nilo A, Tang NPL, Valente M, Gigli GL, et al. Benign EEG variants in the sleep–wake cycle: a prospective observational study using the 10–20 system and additional electrodes. Neurophysiologie Clinique-Clinical Neurophysiology. 2021; 51: 233–242.

[33] Ullah I, Khan SSB, Gul R, Ullah A. Effects of aerobic training on targeted heart rate zone. Hec Recognized Journal. 2022; 7: 16–25.

[34] Moore AR, Olson M. Sense of time is slower following exhaustive cycling exercise. Psychological Research. 2024; 88: 826–836.

[35] Wohldmann EL, Healy AF, Bourne LE III. Task integration in time production. Attention Perception and Psychophysics. 2010; 72: 1130–1143.

[36] Wild-Wall N, Willemssen R, Falkenstein M. Feedback-related processes during a time-production task in young and older adults. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2009; 120: 407–413.

[37] Tonelli A, Lunghi C, Gori M. Moderate physical activity alters the estimation of time, but not space. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022; 13: 1004504.

[38] Rioux PA, Lebrun C, Demers A, Grondin S. Investigation of the psychological length of a 1-s interval with a time production task. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 2023; 77: 177–184.

[39] Saygin O, Goral K, Ceylan HI. An examination of the coincidence anticipation performance of soccer players according to their playing positions and different stimulus speeds. The Sport Journal. 2016; 24: 1–11.

[40] Lyons M, Al-Nakeeb Y, Nevill A. Post-exercise coincidence anticipation in expert and novice Gaelic games players: the effects of exercise intensity. European Journal of Sport Science. 2008; 8: 205–216.

[41] Morrison JD, Reilly J. An assessment of decision-making as a possible factor in the age-related loss of contrast sensitivity. Perception. 1986; 15: 541–552.

[42] Davranche K, Audiffren M. Facilitating effects of exercise on information processing. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2004; 22: 419–428.

[43] Radun J, Maula H, Rajala V, Scheinin M, Hongisto V. Acute stress effects of impulsive noise during mental work. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 2022; 81: 101819.

[44] Macorig G, Crespel A, Nilo A, Tang NPL, Valente M, Gigli GL, et al. Benign EEG variants in the sleep-wake cycle: a prospective observational study using the 10–20 system and additional electrodes. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2021; 51: 233–242.

[45] Le Bouc R, Garcin B, Urbanski M, Volle E, Dubois B, Levy R. Anatomy and disorders of frontal lobe functions: fundamental functions. In Sala SD (ed.) Encyclopaedia of behavioural neuroscience (pp. 266–279). 2nd edn. Elsevier Science: Edinburgh, UK. 2022.

[46] Borges LR, Arantes APBB, Naves ELM. Influence of binaural beats stimulation of gamma frequency over memory performance and EEG spectral density. Healthcare. 2023; 11: 801.

[47] Siraj-Ud-Doulah M. An alternative measures of moments skewness kurtosis and JB test of normality. Journal of Statistical Theory and Applications. 2021; 20: 219–227.

[48] Edwards AM, McCormick A. Time perception, pacing and exercise intensity: maximal exercise distorts the perception of time. Physiology and Behavior. 2017; 180: 98–102.

[49] Skala F, Zemkova E. Effects of acute fatigue on cognitive performance in team sport players: does it change the way they perform? A scoping review. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12: 1736.

[50] Nurcahya Y, Rusdiana A, Hidayat Y, Sidik DZ, Kusumah W, Yamin M, et al. The effect of physical fatigue on football referee’s decision making. Physical Activity Journal. 2023; 5: 91–98.

[51] Bullock T, Giesbrecht B. Acute exercise and aerobic fitness influence selective attention during visual search. Frontiers in Psychology. 2014; 5: 1290.

[52] Kubitz KA, Pothakos K. Does aerobic exercise decrease brain activation? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 1997; 19: 291–301.

[53] Steptoe A, Moses J, Mathews A, Edwards S. Aerobic fitness, physical activity, and psychophysiological reactions to mental tasks. Psychophysiology. 1990; 27: 264–274.

[54] Brewer BW, Schwartz LO III, Cornelius AE, Van Raalte JL, Urbina EL, Stubbs JS III. It’s about time: effects of physical exertion on duration estimates. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 2019; 4: 6.

[55] Bard C, Fleury M. Influence of imposed metabolic fatigue on visual capacity components. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 1978; 47: 1283–1287.

[56] Duncan M, Smith M, Lyons M. The effect of exercise intensity on coincidence anticipation performance at different stimulus speeds. European Journal of Sport Science. 2013; 13: 559–566.

[57] Duncan MJ, Smith M, Bryant E, Eyre E, Cook K, Hankey J, et al. Effects of increasing and decreasing physiological arousal on anticipation timing performance during competition and practice. European Journal of Sport Science. 2016; 16: 27–35.

[58] Tomporowski PD. Cognitive and behavioral responses to acute exercise in youths: a review. Pediatric Exercise Science. 2003; 15: 348–359.

[59] Ahmed HS, Marcora SM, Dixon D, Davison G. The effect of a competitive futsal match on psychomotor vigilance in referees. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2020; 15: 1297–1302.

[60] Bailey SP, Hall EE, Folger SE, Miller PC. Changes in EEG during graded exercise on a recumbent cycle ergometer. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2008; 7: 505–511.

[61] Ghorbani M, Ghazalian F, Ebrahim K, Abednatanzi H. Altered neural response induced by central-fatigue in the cortical area during high-intensity interval pedaling. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience. 2019; 10: 631–639.

[62] Hottenrott K, Taubert M, Gronwald T. Cortical brain activity is influenced by cadence in cyclists. The Open Sports Sciences Journal. 2013; 6: 9–14.

[63] Adam M, Childs A, Quraishi A, Redkar A, Yeske B. Brief aerobic exercise increases mathematical ability in undergraduate students. Journal of Advanced Student Sciences. 2016: 1–19.

[64] Devilbiss DM, Etnoyer-Slaski JL, Dunn E, Dussourd CR, Kothare MV, Martino SJ, et al. Effects of exercise on EEG activity and standard tools used to assess concussion. Journal of Healthcare Engineering. 2019; 2019: 4794637.

[65] Kao SC, Wang CH, Kamijo K, Khan N, Hillman C. Acute effects of highly intense interval and moderate continuous exercise on the modulation of neural oscillation during working memory. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 2021; 160: 10–17.

[66] Ciria LF, Luque-Casado A, Sanabria D, Holgado D, Ivanov PC, Perakakis P. Oscillatory brain activity during acute exercise: tonic and transient neural response to an oddball task. Psychophysiology. 2019; 56: e13326.

[67] Hötting K, Röder B. Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2013; 37: 2243–2257.

[68] Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Developmental Neurorehabilitation. 2008; 11: 236–240.

[69] McMorris T, Hale BJ. Is there an acute exercise-induced physiological/biochemical threshold which triggers increased speed of cognitive functioning? A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2015; 4: 4–13.

[70] Edwards AM, Menting SGP, Elferink‐Gemser MT, Hettinga FJ. The perception of time is slowed in response to exercise, an effect not further compounded by competitors: behavioral implications for exercise and health. Brain and Behavior. 2024; 14: e3471.

[71] Davis PA, Sörman D, Carlberg A, Rognsvåg E, Stenling A. The psychophysiological influence of exertion and affect on sport-specific cognitive and physical performance. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2022; 25: 764–769.

[72] Zhang L, Shi H, Zhang H, Ding J, Wang Z. How do anxiety and stress affect soccer referees? An ERPs study. Frontiers in Psychology. 2024; 15: 1294864.

[73] Ishihara T, Yoshi N. Multivariate analytic study of EEG and mental activity in juvenile delinquents. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 1972; 33: 71–80.

[74] Yamamoto S, Matsuoka S. Topographic EEG study of visual display terminal (VDT) performance with special reference to frontal midline theta waves. Brain Topography. 1990; 2: 257–267.

[75] Jiang F, Chen Z, Zhao L, Zou S. Study on emotional event-related potential by EEG data. 2010 International Conference on Multimedia Technology. 29–31 October 2010. Ningbo, China. IEEE: Zhejiang. 2010.

[76] Jafari MJ, Khosrowabadi R, Khodakarim S, Mohammadian F. The effect of noise exposure on cognitive performance and brain activity patterns. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2019; 7: 2924–2931.

[77] Zokaei M, Mohammadian F, Takallou BA. Changes of alpha and beta brain waves in exposure to different levels of noise. Occupational Medicine. 2023; 15: 35–44.

[78] Kumar A. The effect of noise exposure on cognitive performance and brain activity patterns. The Scientific Temper. 2021; 12: 137–142.

[79] Pscherer C, Wendiggensen P, Mückschel M, Bluschke A, Beste C. Alpha and theta band activity share information relevant to proactive and reactive control during conflict‐modulated response inhibition. Human Brain Mapping. 2023; 44: 5936–5952.

[80] Yao KS, Wu SH, Wang Y. Preliminary assessment of the changes of ındividual electroencephalogram and salivary alpha-amylase activity after inhalation of agarwood. Special Issue of Hsiuping Journal. 2019; 1: 53–62.

[81] Paszkiel S, Dobrakowski P, Łysiak A. The impact of different sounds on stress level in the context of EEG, cardiac measures and subjective stress level: a pilot study. Brain Sciences. 2020; 10: 728.

[82] Jirakittayakorn N, Wongsawat Y. Brain responses to a 6-Hz binaural beat: effects on general theta rhythm and frontal midline theta activity. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2017; 11: 365.

[83] Goodin P, Ciorciari J, Baker K, Carey AM, Harper M, Kaufman J. A high-density EEG investigation into steady state binaural beat stimulation. PLOS ONE. 2012; 7: e34789.

[84] Omeroglu F, Li Y. Effects of binaural beats on mood and cognition. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. Los Angeles, USA. 2022; 66: 1386–1390.

[85] Ala TS, Ahmadi-Pajouh MA, Nasrabadi AM. Cumulative effects of theta binaural beats on brain power and functional connectivity. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control. 2018; 42: 242–252.